What is Linguistics?

What is Linguistics? The mighty one creates an extraordinary perfect creature among the other creatures that is called human. Human being has a highly developed brain since Adam who is the first mankind came to the earth. When he was born, God gave him three potential gifts of life in order to live on; they were physical needs, instincts, and mind. Mind as one of three potential gifts that human has; it is a gift that makes human different from other creatures. With this gift makes mankind is able to develop everything that occurred in his life for sake his living. That is a reason why human has been inventing something new time by time. Language as the most significant part in communication, that is able to connect between the human capacities for culture and language and it has been noted as far back as classical antiquity. On Contemporary Linguistics O’Grady, et al., wrote that: â€Å"Language is many things à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ a system of communication, a medium for thought, a vehicle for literary expression, a social institution, a matter for political controversy, a catalyst for nation building. All human beings normally speak at least one language and it is hard to imagine much significant social, intellectual, or artistic activity taking place in its absence. Each of us, then, has a stake in understanding something about the nature and use of language.† In Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Hornby stated that â€Å"Language is the system of communication in speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country†. Language is a mean of mankind’s communication. There are many different genius unique languages in the world, such as Arabic, Bahasa, Dutch, Japanese, Turkish, Walsh, and English. English is a global language in the world; it is extremely growing and spreading in a whole countries. Except for Japan, because he stated that his strenuous Japanese language makes him as his honor and his personality as Nippon people. Based on the linguists, language divided into two parts, they are literature and linguistics. Literature, in cultural context, language is studied as the tool of literature’s birth. Literature is the art of written works. On Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Hornby wrote that â€Å"Literature is pieces of writing that are valued as works of art, especially novels, plays and poems (in contrast to technical books and newspapers, magazines, etc.)†. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Hornby wrote that â€Å"Linguistics is the scientific study of language or particular languages: a course in applied linguistics†. Linguistics is called Generative Linguistics, studying not also a certain language but pays attention to analyze and comprehend every word, sound, its changes, function and so on in language. That is why linguistics consists of some major aspects of language. Commonly linguistics consists into some major subchapters, the first is anthropological linguistics; the study of the interrelationship between language and culture. Applied linguistics; the application of the methods and result of linguistics in such areas as language teaching. Also Historical linguistics; the study of how language changes through time: the language’s relationship to each other. Morphology is the study of the way in which words are constructed out of smaller meaningful units. The Method of the Research A method that the writer used in this research is descriptive method, regarding in this research the writer analyzes morphology, especially internal change, suppletion, and reduplication. The research describes in morphosemantic analysis of their form, position, function, and meaning as written in the aims of the research. Morphology Morphology is the branch of linguistics that identifying and studying words as grammatical units and word structured that introducing some common morphological phenomenon for modifying of variety of the word’s structure in order to express a new meaning and sign a grammatical contrast, such as internal change that a process in which substitutes one non-morphemic segment to another, suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morphemes is replacing by a phonological unrelated form for indicating a grammatical contrast, and a process that duplicating part or all of the base to apply for marking a grammatical or semantic contras is called reduplication. Morphology derived from Greek words: morphe means form and logos means knowledge, and it is concerned with describing and explaining how the words are formed; it is the branch of linguistics that studies word formation and composition is called Morphology. McMannis, et al., (1987:117), in Language Files explains that â€Å"The study of how words are structured and how they are put together from smaller part†. Another linguist, Verhaar (2004:97) describes â€Å"Morphology is the branch of linguistics that identifies morphemes as grammatical unit†. Spencer et al., in The Handbook of Morphology (2001:1) describes that morphology as â€Å"†¦ The study of word structure and words are at the interface between phonology, syntax and semantics†. Then O’Grady et al., (1987:132) tell that â€Å"The system of categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation is called morphology†. Morphology is the analysis, identification, and description of the word structure (words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). Words and Word Structures â€Å"The most reliable defining property of word is that they are the smallest free forms found in language. A free form is an element that can occur in isolation and or whose position with respect to neighbouring elements is not entirely fixed†. (Contemporary Linguistics: 132) In Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Hornby stated that â€Å"Word is sound or combination of sounds that expresses a meaning and forms an independent unit of grammar or vocabulary of a language†. A speech sound or series of speech sounds that symbolizes and communicates a meaning without being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use. Yet word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech and writing (Richard et al., 1985:311). Furthermore, word formation is the creation of new words. A word can be stated if that word is in the base form. For example, the word singer ® {sing} + {-er}; sing is the base form. Figure 2.1 Words Consisting of One or More Morphemes Morphemes The traditional term for the most elemental unit of grammatical form is morpheme; from Wikipedia site, it is derived from the Greek word morphe meaning â€Å"form†. Britanica Concise Encyclopedia (www.answere.com) described that Morpheme as â€Å"The smallest grammatical unit of speech†. McMannis, et al., (Language Files: 117), wrote that Morpheme is â€Å"The minimal linguistic unit has a meaning or grammatical function†. While Lyons states that morpheme is â€Å"Such minimal units of grammatical analysis of which words may composed are customarily refered to as morpheme† (Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics: 170). Morpheme Classification Morphemes are divided into two basic categories; freestanding word and morphemes that are bound or attached (affixed) to other words. Each of these major categories can be subdivided further into two types, those morphemes that have more lexical content and those that are more grammatical in function. They are divided into two types: Free Morpheme, is morpheme which can stand alone and it has a meaning. The free morphemes with lexical content represent the major parts of speech, such nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The free grammatical function morphemes include the minor parts of speech, such articles, preposition, and conjunction, among others. Based on McMannis, et al., (Language Files: 119) free morpheme is â€Å"A morpheme which can stand alone as words†; Abdul Chaer’s definiton (1994:151), free morpheme is morpheme that can appear in the pronunciation without the presence of other morpheme. Bound Morpheme, is the morpheme that cannot stand alone and it has no meaning, but should be bound (attached) to other morpheme to have a meaning. â€Å"A morpheme that must be attached to another element†. (O’Grady et al.,1987:134) and McMannis stated that bound morpheme is â€Å"The morpheme which are always attached to some other morpheme†. (Language Files: 119) Affixes Affix is a letter or sound or group of letters or sounds, which is added to a word that changes the meaning or part of speech of the word. (Richards, et al., 1985:7); â€Å"Affix is one or more sounds or letters occurring as a bound form attached to the beginning or end of the word base, or phrase or inserted within a word or base and serving to produce a derivative word or an inflectional form†. Different with roots, affixes do not belong to a lexical category and always bound morphemes. Affixes are divided into three types; prefix is affix added to the beginning of the word/morpheme (such as un-, re-, en-, etc.); infix is affix inserted into two other morphemes (such as in tagalong  ®-um, -in, etc.); and suffix is affix added to the ending of the word/morpheme (such as -able, -ness, -ing, -ly) Bases O’Grady, et al., (Contemporary Linguistics: 137) explains that base is â€Å"A base is the form to which an affix is added. In many case the base is also the root†. For example, the word ducks: the element to which the affix –s is added corresponds to the word’s root. Another case, however, an affix can be added to a unit larger that a root which it happens in word blackened that the past tense affix –ed is added to the verbal base blacken –a unit consisting of root the morpheme black and suffix –en. Common Morphological Phenomena Mankind’s language makes use of variety of operations or processes that can modify the structure of word, either by adding some element to it or yet by making an internal change, in order to express a new meaning or to mark a grammatical contrast. 1. Affixation The addition of an affix, a process known as affixation, is common in morphological process in language. Linguist distinguishes the affixation’s process into three types: Prefix, is word or syllable (e.g. co-, en-, ex-, non-, un-, pre-, re-, etc.) placed in front of a word to add or change the meaning of that word, e. g. en in enrich. Prefix also means word (e. g. Dr, Mrs, Mr, Sir, etc.) that paced before a person’s name as a title for someone. (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 1989:976) Infix, is a derivational or inflectional affix appearing in the body of word. (Wikipedia-2010). O’Grady et al., (1987:139) stated that â€Å"Infix is a type of affix that occurs within a base†. Somehow infixes are rarely pretty hard to find them in English. Suffix, is letter or group added at the end of a word to make another word, e. g. –y added to rust to make rusty, or as an inflection, e. g. –en in oxen (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 1989:1286). Suffix means an affix occurring at the end of a word, base or phrase. 2. Compounding Words may also be formed by stringing together other words to create compound words (Wikipedia-2010). On Contemporary Linguistics O’Grady, et al., (1987:143), wrote that â€Å"Compounding is the combination of lexical categories (nouns, adjectives, verbs, or prepositions) to create a larger word†. Compounding in English is unlimited, for examples: Figure 2.2 Samples of Compounding 3. Internal Change On Contemporary Linguistics O’Grady, et al., (1987:141), wrote that â€Å"Internal change is a process that substitutes one non-morphemic segment for another†. For example, look at the table below. Figure 2.3 Internal Change in English In his book, he divided internal change into: Ablaut Ablaut is a systematic variation of vowels in the same root or affix or in related roots or affixes esp. in the Indo-European languages that is usually paralleled by differences in use or meaning. For example, sing (present)  ®sang (past); the term ablaut is often used for vowel alternations that mark grammatical contrast in this way. Umlaut Umlaut is the change of vowel that is caused by partial assimilation to a succeeding sound or that occurs as a reflex of the former presence of a succeeding sound which has been lost or altered (as to mark pluralization in goose ®geese or mouse ®mice). Umlaut involves the fronting of a vowel under the influence of a front vowel in the following syllable. Despite the internal modifications above, the following describes another pattern of internal change (Language Files: 131): The usual pattern of plural formation that is â€Å"To add an infectional morpheme, some English plurals make an internal modification: man but men†. The usual pattern of past and past participle formation is â€Å"To add an affix, but some verbs also show an internal change†; for example: ring, rang, rung; sing, sang, sung, etc. 4. Suppletion Contemporary Linguistics, (1987:142), explained that â€Å"Suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morpheme is replaced by a phonologically unrelated form in order to indicate a grammatical contrast†. From Wikipedia confirmed that â€Å"In linguistics and etymology, suppletion is traditionally understood as the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two words are not cognate†. â€Å"Suppletion is the replacement of one stem with another, resulting in an allomorph of a morpheme which has no phonological similarity to the other allomorphs†. The statement took from SIL International. For an example of this terrific phenomenon in English is the use of went as the past tense form from the verb go, or was and were as the past tense forms from be. In some cases, it is hard to differ between suppletion and internal change as in think (thought) and seek (sought). 5. Reduplication Another magnificent common morphological process in certain language (but not English) is reduplication which duplicates all or part of the base to which it applies to mark a grammatical or semantic contrast. (Contemporary Linguistics: 143) The process of reduplication is dividing into two phenomena types that usually are used in English, the first one is full reduplication and another one is partial reduplication. Full reduplication is the repetition of the entire words. For examples in Indonesian language: orang (man)  ®orang-orang (all sorts of men), anak (child)  ®anak-anak (all sort of children); it is used to indicate intensity. Partial reduplication is copies only part of the word. For example in Tagalog language: takbuh (run)  ®tatakbuh (will run), lakad (walk)  ®lalakad (will walk). The repeating of parts of words to produce new forms is called reduplication. Producing new coinages have often appeared at times of national confidence; when an outgoing also playful nature is expressed in language, for example during 1920’s following the First World War in which when many nonsense word pairs were coined such as the bees knees, heebie-jeebies, etc. The linguists believe that the introduction of such terms begin with Old English and continues today. Willy-nilly, riff-raff, helter-skelter, arsy-versy (a form of vice-versa), hocus-pocus all date from the 16th century. Today, new coinage word is coming up to date; we have bling-bling, boob-tube and hip-hop. The other example of reduplication are ding-dong, see-saw, tick-tock, zig-zag, blah-blah, bye-bye, choo-choo, chop-chop. Hypertension: Signs, Risk Factors, Treatments Hypertension: Signs, Risk Factors, Treatments Contents (Jump to) Introduction Anatomy, physiology and Pathophysiology of hypertension Risk factors that are associated with hypertension i. Age. ii. Gender. iii. Activity level iv. Diet v. smoking vi. Family history Signs and symptoms of hypertension Diagnostics and tests for hypertension Treatment of hypertension 1. Change of lifestyles 2. The use of medicine Complications that may result from hypertension How hypertension process affects the body system Circulatory system Digestive system Nerves system Endocrine system Respiratory system Necessary nutrition for hypertension patients Planning and teaching on patient discharge. References Introduction In his article, â€Å"Hypertension Guide May Affect 7.4 Million†, Gina Kolata observes that approximately two-thirds of American aged above 60 years are likely to server from hypertension. This is supported by the fact that; there are so many people who are admitted to various hospitals suffering from hypertension. Some people have also been admitted to various nursing homes where they are on receiving with medication (Kolata, 2013, December 19). A good example is H.K., who is 80 years old widow female. She was born in India and she only speaks one language, Punjabi. H. K was admitted to a nursing home on 06/07/2013 due to depressive disorder requiring assistance with ADLs. She is on DNR code status and no allergies. I believe she chose for DNR code given that she is at her advanced age. However, it is worth nothing that the decision for a DNR code is not the easiest one any person can make in their lives. Under these instructions, it is evident that H.K treatment only involves the treatment of symptoms that are as a result of pain or rather shortness of breath to just facilitate comfort. This however does not in any way prolong her life. Given her condition, H. K is actually suffering from hypertension. In reference to the case study above, this paper will be giving a comprehensive and consistent facts about hypertension. In support of these facts, this paper will majorly focus on various aspects of the disease. In particular, the paper will be looking at the anatomy and physiology as well as the risk factors that are associated with hypertension. In addition, this paper will also mention the signs and symptoms, diagnostics, treatment and complications of this disease. Moreover, this paper will go further and indicate how the disease process affects the body system, the nutrition information that is necessary for the patients as well as the required planning and teaching on patient discharge. Anatomy, physiology and Pathophysiology of hypertension Commonly known as high blood pressure, hypertension is a prominent blood pressure which clinically is considered to be higher than 140/90 mm/Hg. Once blood pressure in the arteries is high then the heart has a big task of pumping blood throughout the blood vessels (Culpepper, 1983). Basically, the two types of blood pressure that are measured include systolic and diastolic measures. Systolic measure is done when the heart contracts after a beat in order to let blood out of the ventricular while diastolic measure takes place during the relaxation of the ventricular, and thus, being filled with blood. Hypertension occurs when there is an increase resistance of blood flow, even though the cardiac effects remains the same. High blood pressure is normally classified into two; essential/primary hypertension and secondary hypertension. In comparison of these two, primary hypertension does not need any serious medical attention but then a lot of consideration must be channeled towards secondary hypertension because it can result to various effects on the body (Wylie, 2005). There are many pathophysiology mechanisms that are involved in the development of primary hypertension. These include peripheral resistance as well as cardiac output. These two are responsible for arterial pressure. Meanwhile, heart rate and stroke volume are the two determinant of cardiac output. Stroke volume is also influenced by two factors. These include; myocardial contractility in conjunction with the vascular compartment. On the other hand, peripheral resistance occurs as a result of the structural changes of the arteries and arterioles (CEACCP, n.d.). Risk factors that are associated with hypertension Numerous diseases have many risk factors that in one way or another contribute or rather lead to these diseases. Likewise, there a number of risk factors that are known to be associated with hypertension. Some of these factors includes; Age. This is one important risk factor that is associated with hypertension. The more advanced in terms of age an individual becomes, the higher the chances of developing hypertension. Gender. Men forms the large portion of high blood pressure as opposed to females Activity level Individuals who engages in a lot of exercises and who are more active in their old age are less likely to server from hypertension as compared to those people who are in an inactive physically. Diet Salt has been found to have a higher impact of contributing to high blood pressure smoking Smoking is a risk factor in many diseases. Likewise it is also a risk factor and can contribute to hypertension. So people are highly encouraged to quit smoking. Family history Even though research is still being done to confirm the preliminary indications that, an individual who comes from a family which has been diagnosed with hypertension has a high probability of suffering from this disease (Guyton Hall, 2006). Signs and symptoms of hypertension There are a number of signs and symptoms that are associated with high blood pressure. However, it is important to note that there are no direct symptoms that solely can be considered or linked to hypertension. The situation is even made difficult by the fact that most signs that can be deemed to associate with high blood pressure can also result from normal blood pressures. Some of these symptoms include; fatigue, dizziness, nose-bleeding as well as severe headache (Hypertension, n.d). As it can be observed, the above symptoms also occurs in other diseases as well. So when these symptoms start showing up, a person suffering from high blood pressure will also shows some other signs such as vomiting, restlessness, having a blurred vision as well as shortness of breath. Hypertension can now be more suspicious if a person shows other signs like, variation in the mental abilities that is characterized by being confused and eventually leading to a coma. Other signs that will indicate hypertension includes having a heart attack or heart failure, experiencing a lot of pain in the chest, fluids in the lungs, and severe swelling of the brain (Hypertension, n.d). These symptoms are also accompanied by kidney failure, damage of the brain, heart as well as the eyes. Diagnostics and tests for hypertension There are many examinations that can be used to indicate if a patience with above mentioned symptoms and signs is suffering from high blood pressure. The first step is to measure the blood pressure levels. This is done through a series of steps as indicated below; A patient is required to sit down with both feet on the floor for at least five minutes. The patient’s arm should also rest peacefully on the arms of the examination chair. Once the patient is sited relaxing on the chair, a cuff that is attached to the dial is then rubbed around his/her arm. It is important to note that it is the upper arm and not the lower arm. The purpose of dial is actually to show or rather indicate the level of blood pressure. The responsible professional who in most cases is the nurse pumps the cuffs so that blood flow can be stopped. Once this is done, the nurse slowly and carefully loosens the cuff and with the aid of a stethoscope the nurse listens to the blood pressure particularly in the elbow. This is what is refereed to systolic measurement of blood pressure. Eventually the nurse loosens the cuff further and blood start flowing normally until the heart beat cannot be heard through the elbow. This is what is called the diastolic tests. If through these test, there is a convincing indication that indeed the blood pressure of the patient is high, then definitely the doctor will indicate that the patient should return for two to three more similar tests so that the blood pressure can be confirmed (Hypertension, n.d). There are other tests that can be carried out to supplements the tests above. These include; the test for glucose, urine examination, blood tests for determination of potassium levels as well as examination of the kidney functionality (Black, 1999). Treatment of hypertension Generally, there are two approaches that can be used to treat hypertension. These include; change of lifestyles as well as well as the use of medicine. Change of lifestyles There are a number of lifestyle changes that can be adopted and help in dealing with high blood pressure. These include; (a) try as much as possible to reduce body weight. This is because it has been found that high blood pressure is directly proportion to the rate of increase of body weight. In addition, losing weight allows the various medication that are taken to work more efficiently and effectively (b) eating a well-balanced diet that is rich of fruits with reduced salt and fats (c) being active in participating various physical activities. These activities should be undertaken on a daily basis and not just on the weekends (d) reduce alcohol, caffeine as well as tobacco as much as possible (e) avoid all forms of pressure or stress in this case because actually they tend to increase the level of blood pressure (Diseases and Conditions, n.d). The use of medicine Hypertension can also be treated medically using the following drugs; the use of beta-blockers to reduce rate at which the heart beats, use of angiotensin, Diuretics and alpha1-adrenergic (Hypertension, n.d). Complications that may result from hypertension There are numerous complications that may occur due to hypertension. The major common ones include; thickening of blood vessel, this will lead to coronary heart disease, heart failure because of exhaustion of the heart due to the increased load of pumping blood, hypertension also increases chances of cardiac arrhythmias. Hypertension can also lead to stroke as well as diabetes as a result of some drugs that are used to treat it. Men are likely to suffer from sexual dysfunction while females who have high blood pressure have been found to have problems during pregnancies. In addition, blood vessels that supply the brain may be damaged leading to dementia (Simon, 2013) How hypertension process affects the body system Circulatory system One of the most affected body system as a result of hypertension is the circulatory system. This is because, when the heart pumps blood too fast, it may rupture capillaries and arteries (Simon, 2013). Digestive system The digestive system is also affected by high blood pressure. This results due to the fact that, capillaries and arteries are responsible for supplying the stomach with the necessary blood for digestion to take place but once they have been damaged, then the stomach which is part of digestive system is not able to carry its functions well (Simon, 2013). Nerves system The nerves system is also affected by high blood pressure. This occurs due to the fact that arteries are responsible for supplying blood to the brain. If they get damaged due to the high blood pressure from the heart then the functions of the nerves system are impaired and this may definitely lead to dementia (Gregson, 2001). Endocrine system The endocrine system actually has a great contribution to secondary hypertension. This is because, hyperaldosteronism, Cushing’s syndrome as well as pheochromocytoma which are endocrine diseases have been found to contribute to high blood pressure (Gregson, 2001). Respiratory system The respiratory system is also affected by high blood pressure because of the damage that may be caused to the kidney. Poor material flow to muscle tendons as the functionality of different blood vessels is impaired will lead to adverse effects on the muscular system (Gregson, 2001). Necessary nutrition for hypertension patients The major consideration of nutrition is to try and reduce weight. Thus eating more fish, foods which contain fiber, vegetables and fruits is an ideal diet for patients suffering from high blood pressure. In addition all daily fat products should be avoided. Moreover, foods that are rich in calcium, magnesium and potassium are also highly recommended. On top of that, avoid red meet at all cost but then white meet from turkey and chicken is recommendable (Culpepper, 1983). Planning and teaching on patient discharge. Once a hypertension patient has been discharged, it is better for him/her to follow some guidelines which in this case include; taking medicines as directed by the physician, being taught to know the facts of the disease. This will assist the patient to prepare himself psychologically and in the process avoid all forms of stress which may arise. Another important thing that the patient must observe also is to constantly engage in various physical activities. This will also help the patient decrease his blood pressure. The patient also needs to be keen with regard to the foods he will be taking and try to avoid a lot of salt as well as any fat related foods (Diseases and Conditions, n.d). An important fact also the patience should be taught is some symptoms like severe headache, weakness in lower or upper arm, trouble when breathing and difficulties when speaking. Once the patient has experienced these signs, he should call for help immediately References BJA: CEACCP. (n.d.). Hypertension: pathophysiology and treatment. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from http://ceaccp.oxfordjournals.org/content/4/3/71.full Black, E. R. (1999). Diagnostic strategies for common medical problems (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: American College of Physicians. Culpepper, W. S. (1983). Cardiac anatomy and function in juvenile hypertension. The American Journal of Medicine, 75(3), 57-61. Diseases and Conditions. (n.d.). 10 ways to control high blood pressure without medication. Retrieved February 27, 2014, from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-pressure/in-depth/high-blood-pressure/art-20046974?pg=2 Gregson, S. R. (2001). High blood pressure. Mankato, Minn.: LifeMatters. Guyton, A. C., Hall, J. E. (2006). Textbook of medical physiology (11th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. Hypertension/high blood pressure health centre. (n.d.). High blood pressure symptoms: Signs of hypertension, malignant hypertension. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from http://www.webmd.boots.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/high-bp-symptoms Hypertension/high blood pressure health centre. (n.d.). High blood pressure. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from http://www.webmd.boots.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/blood-pressure-treatment Kolata, G. (2013, December 19). Hypertension Guide May Affect 7.4 Million. The New York Times. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/20/health/hypertension-guide-may-affect-7-4-million.html?_r=0 Moore, R. (2001). The high blood pressure solution a scientifically proven program for preventing strokes and heart disease ([2nd ed.). Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. Simon, H. (2013, June 27). Health Guide. High Blood Pressure. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from http://www.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/hypertension/complications.html Wylie, L. (2005). Essential anatomy and physiology in maternity care (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Elsevier, Churchill Livingstone.